The heuristic function \(\eta_{ij} \left( t \right)\) was calculated based on the distance and angle from the current node to the target node. It makes path search more directional. A pheromone ...

To model the environment, targets, and obstacles are modeled as geometrical shapes and stored in a data structure, e.g., a graph, whose nodes and edges are represented by points and lines 10. UAVs ...